SYLLABUS
GS-2: Parliament and State Legislatures—Structure, Functioning, Conduct of Business, Powers & Privileges and Issues Arising out of these; Salient Features of the Representation of the People Act (RPA), 1951.
Context: A field-based study estimates that unauthorised GM cotton hybrids occupied 24–30% of India’s cotton area in 2025–26, highlighting gaps between GM-crop regulation and actual agricultural practices.
Key Findings of the Study
• Extent of cultivation: An estimated 26.2–29 lakh hectares out of 114.8 lakh hectares under cotton cultivation contained hybrids with unauthorised GM traits.
• GM traits detected: The cp4-epsps herbicide-tolerance gene was detected in 72.69% of samples, while the Vip3A insect-resistance gene was detected in 53.74% of samples. These percentages apply to the selected samples, not all cotton fields nationally.
• Informal seed market: The study estimates that unauthorised HTBt seed sales increased from around 35 lakh packets in 2017–18 to 82–88 lakh packets in 2025–26, with an estimated market value of ₹820–880 crore. Sales of approved Bt cotton seed packets declined from 596 lakh in 2022–23 to 463 lakh in 2025–26.
Understanding GM Crops, Bt Cotton and HTBt Cotton
• Genetically modified (GM) crops: These are developed using genetic-engineering techniques to introduce or modify traits such as insect resistance, herbicide tolerance or disease resistance. Some techniques introduce genetic material from another organism.
• Bt cotton and HTBt cotton
- Bt cotton: Approved for commercial cultivation in India in 2002, it uses genes derived from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). The approved cry1Ac and cry2Ab genes produce proteins that protect cotton against specified bollworm pests.
- HTBt cotton: It combines Bt-based insect resistance with herbicide tolerance. The cp4-epsps gene enables cotton to tolerate glyphosate, allowing weed control without killing cotton plants carrying the trait. This additional trait has not been approved for commercial cultivation in India.
- Vip3A trait: This is an additional insect-resistance trait that works differently from cry1Ac and cry2Ab. Its detection in the study’s samples indicates the presence of another unapproved GM trait. The study associates its adoption with demand for improved control of pests, including pink bollworm.
GM crops versus genome-edited crops
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Basis
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GM crops
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Genome-edited crops
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Technique
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Genetic engineering may introduce foreign
genetic material.
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Targeted tools such as CRISPR-Cas make
specific changes to DNA.
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Foreign DNA
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May contain introduced genetic material.
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Plants can be developed without introduced
foreign DNA.
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Indian regulatory pathway
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Governed by the GM biosafety framework under
the 1989 Rules.
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Qualifying SDN-1 (repair without a DNA template) and SDN-2 (repair
using a DNA template) plants without introduced foreign DNA are exempt from
specified provisions of the 1989 Rules.
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Example
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Bt cotton, approved for commercial
cultivation.
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DRR Rice 100 (Kamla) and Pusa DST Rice 1,
announced in 2025.
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Regulatory Framework and Status of GM Crops in India
• Legal framework: The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, and the 1989 Rules govern the manufacture, use, import, export and storage of genetically engineered organisms.
• Key institutions: The Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBSC) oversees institutional research; the Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM) monitors relevant research and development; and the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) evaluates proposals involving environmental release. Decisions follow the applicable statutory approval process.
• Status of GM crops: Bt cotton remains the only GM crop approved for commercial cultivation in India. Bt brinjal remains under a moratorium on commercial cultivation. GM mustard has received GEAC approval for environmental release, but this should not be equated with unrestricted commercial cultivation.
• Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: Adopted under the Convention on Biological Diversity, it provides an international framework for the safe handling, transport and use of living modified organisms that may adversely affect biodiversity, taking account of risks to human health. India ratified the Protocol in 2003. Domestic GM-crop approvals remain governed by Indian law.
Why Are Farmers Adopting Unauthorised GM Cotton?
• Labour shortages and high costs: Manual weeding is labour-intensive, and farmers face difficulty securing workers at affordable rates.
• Lower weed-management costs: The study estimates that two to three glyphosate applications cost ₹750–850 per acre, compared with ₹12,000–15,000 for manual weeding. These estimates vary with local conditions.
• Demand for additional pest resistance: The reported presence of Vip3A suggests interest in additional insect-resistance traits amid concerns about the effectiveness of existing technologies against pests such as pink bollworm. However, adoption alone does not establish long-term effectiveness.
Concerns and Implications
• Regulatory and biosafety concerns: Unauthorised cultivation bypasses prescribed assessment and approval procedures, complicating monitoring, traceability and accountability.
• Environmental risks: Repeated glyphosate use can select for herbicide-resistant weeds, while broad-spectrum herbicide application may affect non-target vegetation and organisms.
• Resistance and seed quality: Over-reliance on particular insect-resistance traits can reduce their long-term effectiveness. Informal seed networks also weaken quality assurance and leave farmers with limited recourse if seeds underperform.
• Policy challenge: The spread of unauthorised hybrids highlights the need to address farmers’ production constraints while maintaining scientific assessment and regulatory compliance.
Way Forward
• Strengthen enforcement: Improve surveillance of unauthorised seed production, distribution and cultivation, especially in identified hotspots.
• Promote affordable alternatives: Expand mechanised weeding and integrated weed management to reduce dependence on costly manual labour and repeated herbicide use.
• Improve scientific assessment: Ensure transparent, evidence-based evaluation of proposed GM traits and clearly communicate regulatory decisions.
• Address farmers’ needs: Respond to labour shortages, weed-management costs and pest resistance while ensuring that new GM traits follow the prescribed approval process.
